What are the most common beliefs across religions and secular philosophies about what happens to us after we die?

The big split: something continues, or nothing continues

Beliefs about death fall into two broad families. One says the essential part of a person—identity or consciousness—continues after the body dies, either in a supernatural realm or through rebirth into this world [41][42]. The other says death simply ends personal consciousness and existence [8][11]. Most major religions believe in some form of afterlife, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Cao Dai, and Scientology [10]. Religious traditions often answer the question through reincarnation (as in Buddhism and Hinduism) or through comforting beliefs in heaven and reunion with loved ones (as in some Christian traditions) [15][103]. A recurring religious theme is that how you lived determines what happens next [44][100].

Rebirth and liberation: the Indian religions

• Hinduism teaches "samsara," the ceaseless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Karma in the current life affects the conditions and status of the next life, and the goal is moksha, freedom from the cycle [4]. Hindus believe a person can be reborn as a human, animal, plant, or even insect [39]. Hinduism also has both philosophical and mythical afterlife views; in the mythical view, souls exhaust their karma in heaven or hell and then are reborn to continue spiritual evolution [68][69].
• Buddhism also teaches the cycle of samsara, with nirvana as the state that ends all suffering and desire [5]. Buddhists believe that after death a person is reincarnated into another body, passing through a state called Bardo between death and rebirth; the ultimate goal is nirvana, an end to suffering [38]. Rebirth is shaped by karma, but without an unchanging self or soul passing between lives [65]. Theravada Buddhism describes 31 realms into which one can be reborn [66], and Tibetan Buddhism describes an intermediate state between death and reincarnation [67].
• Jainism teaches that the soul takes on a new body form based on its past karmas [70].
• Sikhism teaches that the soul is never born and never dies; it is part of God and lives forever [71].
• All major Indian religions—Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism—have their own interpretations of reincarnation [46]. Although most Abrahamic denominations reject reincarnation, some groups within those traditions accept it, including followers of Kabbalah, the Cathars, Alawites, Druze, and Rosicrucians [47].

Judgment, heaven, and hell

• Heaven and hell are widespread concepts. Heaven is often described as a higher, holy, paradise-like place, while hell is a place or state of punishment [48][49]. Religions with a linear divine history often portray hell as eternal, while religions with a cyclic history usually treat hell as an intermediate period between lives [50]. Some traditions do not see the afterlife as reward or punishment at all, describing it as a neutral place or state such as Sheol or Hades [51].
• Judaism has diverse and often ambiguous afterlife beliefs [6]. Scripture mentions Gan Eden (heaven) and Gehinnom (hell), but Jewish tradition puts strong emphasis on living an ethical life now [6]. Many Jews believe in an afterlife in varied forms, including reincarnation and a World to Come similar to heaven [37]. In the Hebrew Bible, Sheol is a place of darkness to which all the dead go, both righteous and unrighteous [52]. Jewish tradition also includes judgment after death: those who lived pristine lives enter the World to Come, while most others experience a period of reflection on their earthly actions [53].
• Christianity teaches a clear distinction between heaven and hell, with heaven as eternal paradise with God for those who accepted Jesus Christ and hell as a warning destination for those who did not [2]. Many Christians believe moral decisions on Earth determine whether a person goes to Heaven or Hell [35]. Mainstream Christianity professes "the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come" [54]. Some biblical views say that after death spirits go to Paradise to be perfected, with some needing purification in hell first [1][82]. Catholics add purgatory, a place of purification before entering heaven [35][56]; Catholic teaching says the soul is judged after death, with heaven, hell, and purgatory as possible outcomes [55]. Protestant views vary, with some emphasizing immediate passage to heaven or hell based on faith in Christ [93]. Orthodox Christianity sees heaven and hell not as separate locations but as different experiences of God's presence [57][92]. Latter-day Saints believe spirits wait temporarily in Spirit Prison or Paradise and, after resurrection, are assigned to three degrees of glory determined by how they lived [58]. Jehovah's Witnesses believe in a bodily resurrection of the righteous and unrighteous after Armageddon [59]. Seventh-day Adventists believe the dead remain unconscious until Christ returns in judgment [60].
• Islam teaches a dualistic afterlife of Jannah (Paradise) and Jahannam (Hell) [3]. Muslims believe the soul lives on after physical death and waits for Judgement Day, when the righteous enter Paradise and sinners enter Hell [36]. The Quran and hadith give vivid descriptions of both destinations [62]. There is also an interim stage called Barzakh, where souls await the Day of Judgment [96]. On that day God raises everyone and evaluates their worldly actions [61], with earthly life described as a test and Jannah as the goal [95]. Muslims and scholars disagree about whether hell is eternal or whether everyone will eventually be forgiven [63]; Islam also includes the idea of redemption, with souls ascending from hell to paradise after purification [99].
• Zoroastrianism teaches that souls are judged by whether their good or bad deeds weigh more, leading to paradise or hell [76].
• Many traditional African societies lack clear-cut ideas of heaven and hell, but they often believe God judges the soul after death [74].

Other destinations, ancestors, and universal salvation

• Many pagan belief systems hold that the dead go to a specific place, such as paradise or the underworld, determined by their gods based on actions and beliefs during life [43]. Some Native American tribes believe in the Happy Hunting Ground, a realm where souls find peace and reunite with ancestors [7]. The Wiccan afterlife is commonly called The Summerland, where souls rest, reflect on life, and are later reincarnated [75].
• Confucius himself did not directly discuss the afterlife, but Chinese folk religion influenced Confucians to believe their ancestors become deified spirits after death [72]. Taoism views life as an illusion and death as a transformation into immortality [73].
• The Bahá'í writings say the soul is immortal and continues to progress after death until it attains God's presence [64].
• Some Unitarian Universalists believe in universalism: all souls will ultimately be saved and there are no torments of hell [80].
• Some societies, such as the Hadza hunter-gatherers, have no particular belief in an afterlife and see death as a straightforward end to existence [81].

Secular and atheist views

• Most nonreligious people do not believe in an afterlife in which a soul, spirit, or conscious self survives brain death, and most do not think the universe or human life has an inherent purpose [11][102]. Atheists commonly view death as the cessation of consciousness and existence [8][107], and some describe death as the permanent end, with no reunion with loved ones [113].
• Many use a materialist view: consciousness is located in the brain, so when the brain dies, consciousness ends [13]. Some point out that brain damage or chemical manipulation can change or erase personal identity, which is why they no longer believe in existence after death [108]. A common comparison is anesthesia: death ends individual existence and consciousness [12][104].
• The body is not wasted: it is recycled into nature and nourishes future plant life [12][105]. What "lives on" is non-personal: genes passed to children, energy returning to the universe, and a person's impact and memory [14][106]. One secular humanist describes the afterlife as the person's impact rippling through the world [19], or the body's atoms becoming parts of stars and trees [20]. Another common phrase is "to live in hearts we leave behind is not to die" [21].
• Studies of science-oriented people find that most endorse annihilation after death. In one study, 76% mentioned some form of annihilation, while 35% endorsed some kind of continuity [25]. The most frequent view was annihilation without distinguishing mind and body (60%) [26], and annihilation of bodily functions was mentioned by 55% [27]. Continuity through social relations and legacy appeared in 24% of responses [28], and continuation in natural laws in 20% [29]. Religious or New Age afterlife beliefs appeared in only 14% [30], and belief in an immortal soul or spirit in 8% [31].
• Unbelievers were more likely to mention secular forms of continuity, while theists relied mainly on afterlife beliefs [32]. Theists and people unsure about God were more likely than atheists to endorse a supernatural afterlife [33]. Still, scientific and religious explanations can coexist; people use both to make sense of death [34].
• There are also philosophical alternatives to a personal afterlife. One view, "open individualism," says individual conscious experience is an illusion, and because consciousness continues in all conscious beings, "you" do not truly die [77]. Another view says people do not experience personal immortality, but their experiences live on forever in God, who contains all that was [78]. Some philosophers use Occam's razor, the principle that simpler explanations are better, to argue against an afterlife [79].
• Nonreligious people still build meaning around death. The most common framework is nature-based: humans are part of nature [16]. These secular ways of making meaning resemble religious ones in structure and function—they build coherence and control, place human experience in relation to something bigger than the self, and give moral weight to facing the end [109].
• Agnostics take a different route: they do not reject the idea of God, but they acknowledge that they do not know what the afterlife holds or whether God exists [9].

What most beliefs share

• Two common models appear again and again: continued existence in a supernatural realm, or rebirth into this world [42].
• Conduct and moral choices determine what happens after death across many traditions [44][100].
• Themes of judgment, redemption, and eternal existence recur widely even when the details differ [100].
• Afterlife beliefs often serve social and ethical functions: they promote social cohesion and ethical conduct, shape individual behavior, and strengthen family and community bonds [86].
• There is a common claim that a secular philosophy of death will never comfort people the way a religious one does [17]. Many atheists wish they could believe in an afterlife, though many do not [111]. Atheists find their own comfort in love, relationships, community, gratitude, and the sense of being part of life's bigger story [115][118][119][120].
• Atheists commonly reject the idea that death is part of a divine plan or a test [112][114]. They often see the cosmos as indifferent to humans, which is why they believe humans must care for one another [116]. They also still fear death and grieve for the futures they will never experience [117].